Tag Archives: International Takings Exception

Non-Economic Quasi-Property Rights Under Section 1605(a)(3)

October 15, 2014 By in International Takings Exception Tags: , , , Leave a comment

Section 1605(a)(3) provides that a foreign state shall not be immune in any case “in which rights in property taken in violation of international law are in issue and that property or any property exchanged for such property is present in the United States in connection with a commercial activity carried on in the United States by the foreign state; or that property or any property exchanged for such property is owned or operated by an agency or instrumentality of the foreign state and that agency or instrumentality is engaged in a commercial activity in the United States.”  28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(3).  In LaLoup v. United States, No. CIV.A. 13-7124, 2014 WL 3361804 (E.D. Pa. July 10, 2014), the court held that a family’s “quasi-property right” in a deceased family member’s body – a right that “can be used for only the one purpose of burial, and has no pecuniary value” – satisfied the “rights in property” requirement set forth in section 1605(a)(3).  Id. at *14-15. 

I am skeptical of the LaLoup court’s conclusion.  As then-Circuit Judge Scalia observed with regard to the analogous immovable property exception, 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(4), a court’s “job is not to give the term [rights in immovable property] the most expansive reading possible, nor to extract from different sources of law an artificial consensus definition of the term, but to determine what Congress meant by the language in this particular statute.”  Asociacion de Reclamantes v. United Mexican States, 735 F.2d 1517, 1521 (D.C. Cir. 1984).  The purpose of section 1605(a)(3) was  to address “expropriation claims.”  H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at 19 (1976).  As the full language of the jurisdictional provision demonstrates, it was intended to cover property that could be used “in connection with a commercial activity.”  28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(3); see also, e.g., Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U.S. 337, 341 (1997) (“The plainness . . . of statutory language is determined by reference to the language itself, the specific context in which that language is used, and the broader context of the statute as a whole.”).  Given the legislative history and the specific context of the term “rights in property” as it is used in section 1605(a)(3), it does not appear that the term should be extended to “quasi-property rights” in a human body that have no pecuniary or economic value.

The FSIA, Agency and Agents: Avoiding a Basic Pitfall

January 20, 2014 By in Agency Tags: , , , , , , , , , , , Leave a comment

On appeal in the Ninth Circuit in Sachs v. Republic of Austria, et al., Case No. 11-15458, the Austrian instrumentality OBB Personenverkehr AG (“OBB”) argued that an entity’s conduct may be attributed to a foreign state under the FSIA only if that entity meets the “agency or instrumentality” requirements set forth in 28 U.S.C. section 1603(b).  OBB contended that because the entity in question did “not fall within the agency definition” set forth in section 1603(b), the “acts of [the entity] cannot be imputed to OBB for purposes of Section 1605(a)(2).”  OBB’s Supplemental Letter, dated Apr. 8, 2013, Docket No. 52, at 2.  Because OBB’s erroneous argument has been made by litigants in FSIA cases before (see Gates v. Victor Fine Foods, 54 F.3d 1457, 1460 n.1 (9th Cir. 1995)), this post examines the issue more closely.

Under the FSIA, the term “‘foreign state,’ except as used in section 1608 . . . , includes a political subdivision of a foreign state or an agency or instrumentality of a foreign state as defined in subsection (b).”  28 U.S.C. § 1603(a) (emphasis added).  An “agency or instrumentality” is defined as any entity which (1) “is a separate legal person, corporate or other,” (2) “is an organ of a foreign state or political subdivision thereof, or a majority of whose shares or other ownership interest is owned by a foreign state or political subdivision thereof,” and (3) “is neither a citizen of a State of the United States as defined in section 1332(c) and (e) of this title, nor created under the laws of any third country.”  28 U.S.C. § 1603(b).   The term “agency or instrumentality” was intended to include entities such as “state trading corporation, a mining enterprise, a transport organization such as a shipping line or airline, a steel company, a central bank, an export association, a governmental procurement agency or a department or ministry which acts and is suable in its own name.”  H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at 16 (1976).

Despite section 1603(a)’s sole reference to section 1608 – the FSIA’s service provision – the statutory scheme reflects different treatment of agencies or instrumentalities that extends well beyond service of process.  For example, it is easier to establish jurisdiction under the international takings exception over an agency or instrumentality than it is over a foreign sovereign itself.  See 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(3).  The FSIA precludes recovery of punitive damages against a foreign sovereign, but not against an agency or instrumentality.  28 U.S.C. § 1606.  And it is easier to attach or execute on the property of an agency or instrumentality than it is on the property of a foreign sovereign.   Compare 28 U.S.C. § 1610(a) with § 1610(b).

As a result, the determination of whether an entity qualifies as a foreign sovereign or as an agency or instrumentality is an important one.  However, contrary to OBB’s argument, the determination has nothing to do with the issue of attribution – i.e., common law “agency” – under the FSIA.   Section 1603(b) was intended to delineate the entities entitled to the protections of the FSIA, but nothing suggests that the provision was meant to address attribution for purposes of jurisdiction or liability.

In contrast to the requirements of section 1603(b), “agency” for purposes of attribution is governed by common law principles as informed by international law and articulated congressional policies.  First Nat. City Bank v. Banco Para El Comercio Exterior de Cuba, 462 U.S. 611, 623 (1983).  For example, with respect to separate juridical entities, courts examine whether an entity is under the “day-to-day” control of a foreign sovereign.  See, e.g., Dale v. Colagiovanni, 443 F.3d 425, 429 (5th Cir. 2006).  In addition, an actual authority agency inquiry will typically turn on foreign law, since that will dictate whether the putative agent was in fact authorized to engage in the conduct alleged.  See, e.g., Velasco v. Gov’t Of Indonesia, 370 F.3d 392, 401-02 (4th Cir. 2004); see also Fed. R. Civ. P. 44.1.  And apparent authority is not permitted as an agency theory under the FSIA, for all of the reasons I have previously discussed.  Plainly, all of these issues are far afield from the statutory inquiry set forth in section 1603(b).

OBB’s erroneous argument may have arisen from use of the term “agency” in the FSIA, which at first blush may appear to refer to common law “agency” principles.  See Hester Int’l Corp. v. Fed. Republic of Nigeria, 879 F.2d 170, 176 n.5 (5th Cir. 1989) (“The use of the single term ‘agency’ for two purposes . . . may cause some confusion.”).    However, as the Fifth Circuit explained long ago:

The FSIA uses [the term] to determine whether an “agency” of the state may potentially qualify for foreign sovereign immunity itself under the FSIA. This is a completely different question from that which we must address here: whether or not the [entity] enjoyed an alter ego relationship with the [foreign sovereign] so that it could bind [the sovereign] to a contract. Although such an alter ego relationship may be described in terms of “agency,” it is a completely different inquiry than that which might be conducted under § 1603.

Hester Int’l Corp. v. Fed. Republic of Nigeria, 879 F.2d 170, 176 (5th Cir. 1989). 

The Ninth Circuit followed Hester in Gates, 54 F.3d at 1460 n.1.  The Ninth Circuit recently reaffirmed Gates when it strongly rejected OBB’s argument in Sachs:

The plain text of the FSIA does not support OBB’s proposed framework for determining whether [the entity in question] is an agent of OBB. Section 1603(b) defines what type of entity can be considered a foreign state for purposes of claiming sovereign immunity. If an entity cannot show that it meets that definition then it is not entitled to sovereign immunity. Whether an entity meets the definition of an “agency or instrumentality of a foreign state” to claim immunity is a completely different question from whether the acts of an agent can be imputed to a foreign state for the purpose of applying the commercial-activity exception.

Sachs v. Republic of Austria, 737 F.3d 584, 595 (9th Cir. 2013) (en banc) (citations and quotations omitted).

Because the term “agency” is used both under section 1603(b) and under the common law, the erroneous argument made by OBB in the Sachs appeal is capable of repetition.  However, FSIA practitioners should be aware of the distinction, and thereby avoid this basic pitfall in FSIA law.